Spirituality and Cultural Expressions:
(See also Spirituality section from Cycle 1 collection)

"Native spiritual traditions are passed down orally through generations. Although North American Indian traditions vary considerably across the continent, they still have much in common. Central to many cultures is a belief that the Great Spirit created the Earth and its people. Others believe that humans came from a sky-world, that the Earth is the Mother of all life, and that plants and animals have spirits that must be respected, honoured and cared for.  [See also animism]  It is a holistic concept of not only human life but also the life of the world and all things in it, both animate and inanimate, wherein all things are related and interconnected through a "circle of life." The concept is reflected and explained by the shaman's medicine wheel."  (Quote source and more summary information at Canadian Military's Religions in Canada: Native Spirituality page.)

For more information about the Medicine Wheel and the Circle of Life concepts in Native Religions, see also:
Traditional Teachings of the Medicine Wheel
Medicine Wheel Teachings by Shannon Thunderbird
Native American Storyteller explains Medicine Wheel (Video of storyteller with youth)
Newage Fraud Warning: Medicine Wheel Teaching (Arguing that it is NOT part of Mi'kmaq culture.)

Aboriginal Youth Identity series unit on "Aboriginal Beliefs and Values"
"Aboriginal People have a strong belief and world vision that embraces all living creatures and human beings as being equal. Animals and nature are respected and are believed to work harmoniously with humans."   Though dealing with contemporary issues, this teaching strategy helps to outline basic differences between European and Aboriginal world views which would have existed in pre-contact times.

Social relationships
(See also Social and Political Organization section from Year 1 First Peoples collection)

Northeastern Woodlands-"The Iroquois were the region's most powerful confederacy, uniting the Cayugas, Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, and Senecas. The Iroquois called themselves Haudensaunee, "people of the longhouse." They lived in elongated elm-bark structures, twenty-five feet wide and less than 100 feet long with some extending to 200 feet. Three to six families or hearths from the same maternal lineage lived in one dwelling. Marriage was a contract between two groups of kin, rather than a contract between individuals. Parents as well as elder relatives influenced the selection of marriage partners. However, the compatibility of the prospective couple remained important since newly weds were incorporated into established longhouses. Noncompatible couples were permitted to divorce."  (Source and for information:  Answers.com Indian Social Life)

Iroquois Social Life - "Social structure was based on matrilineal principles. The basic unit was the matrilineage, consisting of the descendants, through females, of a single woman. Female members lived together with their husbands (who belonged to other matrilineages) in a single longhouse; a village would contain anything from a few small longhouses to as many as 50. Several matrilineages formed the matrilineal clan which, besides being of symbolic and ceremonial importance, served to regulate marriage patterns. Marriage was forbidden between members of a clan."  (Source:  Canadian Encyclopedia here and see also here.)

Algonquians - "Prior to European intervention, the largest political unit among most Woodland Algonquians appears to have been the band-village, there being no confederacies of village chiefs. Each BAND or band-village appears to have possessed at least one chief or headman, whose position was usually hereditary within the male line. Patrilineal groups designated by an animal totem seem to have been characteristic of all peoples."  (Source:  Canadian Encyclopedia)

"The Algonquin social structure was patriarchal; men were the leaders and the heads of the family and territorial hunting rights were passed from father to son."  (Source:  CQSB site on Algonquians)

"Like most Algonquin speaking peoples, traditional Algonquin bands consisted of a network of family groups bound by the ties of descent (blood) and affinity (marriage and adoption). Bands where based on patrilineal extended families that included parents, children as well as grandparents, single adult and their children, newly married couples without children, widows and orphans. While Algonquin social structure was based on descent through the male line, kinship ties to both father's and mother's family were recognized, thus providing the widest network of relations to draw upon."  (Source:  Ardoch Algonquin First Nation)

Relationship with Nature

"For the First Peoples, nature provided everything that was necessary for daily life. Long before the days of electricity, running water or modern medicine, they relied directly on the sky, land and water to nurture them and provide them with physical sustenance. However, the Aboriginal Peoples’ relationship with the land was not limited to what nature could provide physically – it was also a form of emotional sustenance; an endless source of spiritual nourishment. From early on, the Aboriginals fostered a deep respect and reverence for Nature, for they believed it was infused with an all-embracing and ever-present spirit."  (Source:  Elders' Voices: Spirituality section)

"The environmental wisdom and spirituality of North American Indians is legendary.
Animals were respected as equal in rights to humans. Of course they were hunted, but only for food, and the hunter first asked permission of the animal's spirit. Among the hunter-gatherers the land was owned in common: there was no concept of private property in land, and the idea that it could be bought and sold was repugnant. Many Indians had an appreciation of nature's beauty as intense as any Romantic poet. Religious beliefs varied between tribes, but there was a widespread belief in a Great Spirit who created the earth, and who pervaded everything."  (Source:  Paul Harrison's website page entitled North American Indians: the spirituality of nature for more info.)

"How can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of the land? The idea is strange to us.
If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how can you buy them?
Every part of this earth is sacred to my people. Every shining pine needle, every sandy shore, every mist in the dark woods, every clearing and humming insect is holy in the memory and experience of my people. The sap which courses through the trees carries the memories of the red man."  (Source: Chief Seattle's Thoughts)

"Imagine the sorrow: an American Indian is paddling his way down a quiet river when his harmony with this benevolent natural world is abruptly interrupted by factories spewing pollution and motorists tossing the leftovers of their fast-food lunches out of car windows. [....] The Crying Indian, which the advertisement was commonly called, traded on the power of the stereotypical noble savage, displaced from an idealized past, paddling his way through a modern industrialized landscape. It was not industrial might that gave this advertisement its considerable passion, however; the emotional potency of the Crying Indian depended on viewers accepting that purity, grace, and simplicity are associated with both Indian people and unspoiled nature."  (Source:  Commercial Indians: authenticity, nature, and industrial capitalism in advertising at the turn of the twentieth century.  Must purchase whole article, but summary alone provides interesting perspective.  Of course, the 1971 ad has found its way to Youtube.)

Communication and trade relations
(See also Economic Activity section from Year 1 First Peoples collection and the developing Economy and Development links collection for Year 2) 

"Trade routes between the various First Nations groups in the Great Lakes region were already centuries old by the time the French arrived. These trade networks facilitated the movement of utilitarian goods, and the introduction of new or exotic items into Native society. The trade alliances extended far beyond the neighbouring [of the Hurons] Algonquin groups, reaching as far south as the Mississippian cultures and as far north as the parkland hunter-gatherers of the Sub-Arctic."
[...]
"The Six Nations societies, or People of the Longhouse, were agriculturists and participated in trade networks similar to those of the Huron. They formed a political, economic, and social confederacy that initially included the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and the Senecas. In 1722, the Tuscaroras joined the alliance. [...] The pine tree was a symbol of unity and the Deganawidah legend represented a respect for peaceful co-operation amongst Nations instead of a doctrine of warfare."  (Source: U of Calgary, First Nations...European Contact)

What follows are artifacts and key story collections that allowed for a broad transmission the above "currents of thought".   The Learning Situation being developed on " Ideology, Mass Media and Cultural Expression" asks students to consider how ideas are communicated through things like art, and how these early types of "mass media" could serve to either promote or threaten a local culture.   (The assumption made when I gathered together following websites was that First Peoples' pre-contact Cultural Expressions served to encourage distinct traditional cultures rather than "homogenize" them with dominant external cultures, but that assumption could be contested.  PR)

VMC: Aboriginal Art, Culture and Traditions
A variety of exhibitions have been mounted at the Virtual Museum of Canada and are available on their site.  Many exhibitions involve contemporary art work and present-day media techniques, but several access points reflect cultural expression typical of pre-contact days.


Storytelling (Time immemorial to 1500+)
The beliefs themselves were often transmitted as stories.  The native oral tradition still exists today, as the same tales and spiritual notions are passed down through recordings, the internet, even as the same stories are finally written into texts.  The Four Directions Teaching contains many examples of stories that reflect spiritual beliefs.   Also, the Aboriginal Cultures and Traditions Storytelling web site collects stories on the importance of storytelling (!)...  " from the First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples of this country. Collectively identified by Indian and Northern Affairs Canada as "Aboriginal," each group self-identifies as separate peoples with unique heritages, languages, cultural practices and spiritual beliefs."

Sculptures of Animals and Stories (Time immemorial to 1500+)
Native Art section of Canadian Encyclopedia (several pages):  Native art, in this series of encyclopedia entries, is seen as primarily an extension of what the First Peoples "believed".   Many native groups were essentially animist, believing animals and even objects had "souls", so certain works, totem poles and sculptures for examples, reflected these beliefs.  Early petroglyphs are also reminiscent of the presence of the these beliefs in cultures predating the First Nations.  

Pottery:  Learning from our Mothers   ( aussi en Français ) (Time immemorial to 1500+)
"Pottery shows the strength of the pupil-teacher relationship, and of the bonds between generations of women."  Since it was traded widely, it could be seen as an early form of mass media!  First Voices on ROM site, AGORA section. This site also includes pictures of pottery, which was used to illustrate stories in many Native cultures. 

Wampum  -- Treaties, Sacred Records (Time immemorial to 1500+)
This (admittedly, slightly-dated) website provides an overview of various uses of Wampum belts.  As the Canadian Encyclopedia entry states, "They were used to record treaties, settle disputes, and make peace."  In effect, Wampum Belts also reflected political ideologies (of both groups involved), and can be seen as a way of expressing evolving political principals.
Mccord has a few examples of Wampum Belts in their collection.  (Example 1 and example 2 referred to in above article which shows an agreement made with Jesuits that they would build a church!)

Music in Native Cultures (Time immemorial to 1500+)
The Jesuit missionaries gave their impressions of "Indian Music" when first visiting Canada.  In fact, they used music in their own missionary work as a means of converting these "noble savages".  (Source:  Encyclopedia of Music in Canada  French ici)

Headdresses (Time immemorial to 1500+)
Headdresses could be seen as one type of cultural expression that indicated social status. (click here for McCord collection of images).   For Plains peoples of the west, "The right to wear a Buffalo headdress was granted to the man who, in battle, defeated an enemy in hand-to-hand combat and took his scalp. A warrior with a headdress was entitled to marry and establish a household. A headdress that flowed down to the ground indicates that the wearer is a candidate for chief." (Source:  U of Calgary)  Iroquois headdresses could indicate to which tribe you belonged.  (Source: Headdresses...Facts for Kids)  Horns used to indicate status as chief or leader.  (Source:  Iroquois Book of Rites)

Native Drums (nativedrums.ca) (Time immemorial to 1500+)
"Aboriginal cultures intertwine drumming, singing and dancing into their societies’ political and social fabric."  One could argue that drumming not only echoed the currents of thought inherent in Native stories, but also that the songs provided a way of distributing that knowledge.   "The Ojibwe and Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) traditionally use water drums in some of their ceremonial practices. The teachings and stories connected with the “Little Boy” and the “ Grandfather” drums are at the heart of the Ojibwe Midewiwin religion and worldview." (previous quotes from page on Drum Culture.)  Did these songs reflect and promote local culture?   "The music of the First Nations is not a single entity, but a vast and shifting landscape of sound that varies from Nation to Nation, from region to region across Canada. Yet all these different musical traditions circle around certain core beliefs, around valuable morals and lessons for the life of both the individual and the community."  And what role did Powows play?  (this quote fromThe Drum Lives).  Excellent site for classes wanting to emphasis non-visual cultural expression... though, some drums are indeed culturally reflective art works in an of themselves!  (Other images available in their drum gallery and at other sites like  Native America Drums).  The site also contains various teacher's guides!

Codex canadiensis   (English and French) (1700)
Were these forms of European mass media of the 1700s?   Since few drawings exist  like these for earlier periods, either by Native Canadians or Europeans, these drawings provide a glimpse of how the earliest non-Aboriginal settlers saw the culture and social and economic activities of our First Peoples.  The drawings were mainly concerned with "natural history", and with flora and fauna, but they also contain portraits of various First Nation leaders.

Modern connections:  Contemporary Cultural Expression

Aboriginal Youth Identity Series unit on "Communication and Cultural Expression"
"Communication in all its forms is the means by which culture is learned.  Communication can be expressed verbally or non-verbally in a variety of mediums. Aboriginal People across Canada have their own language groups and dialects, artistic forms, and have Aboriginal owned and or operated media outlets. Students will be introduced to the influence of these mediums upon Aboriginal culture."

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Cultural Expressions associated with Kings and New France

1686 Bust of Louis XIV in Place Royal
How did art and ideas reach the people in the earliest days of New France?  Sculptures, in the many churches and public buildings, but also in public squares, could be seen as an early form of mass media.  " Intendant Jean Bochart de CHAMPIGNY had a bust of King Louis XIV erected at its centre."  (QTVR Panorama and photos available.) See also Flickr photo here.

"Catholics look to the leadership of the pope, also called the pontiff, located in the Vatican City in Rome. In the Catholic Church's belief, God is the creator and father of all, and God the son (Jesus Christ) has a universal kingdom, which is the church. The Catholic religion recognizes seven religious acts, called sacraments: baptism, confirmation, communion, confession, ordination, marriage, and unction (performed on the seriously ill or dying)."  (Source:  Youth Edition.  Canadian Encyclopedia)

1615-1650 Catholic Missionaries
"Catholicism did not take hold until Samuel de CHAMPLAIN persuaded the French church to act on his pro-settlement campaign."  [...]  "Supported by noble benefactors and the French clergy, members of the RÉCOLLET Franciscan order established themselves in Québec in 1615, followed in 1625 by the Jesuits. The missionaries went home to France during the English occupation of 1629-32, but then returned in force (although, by order of Cardinal Richelieu, only the Jesuits were permitted to resume their work)." [...] "This young Canadian church was devoted almost entirely to evangelizing native peoples. Without neglecting the increasing number of settlers in NEW FRANCE, the JESUITS (and later the SULPICIANS) concentrated on living with the natives." (Source:  Regular Edition. Canadian Encylopedia  See also section called Missions and Missionaries.)

Cultural Expressions associated with Catholicism:

1632-1672  The Jesuit Relations
The most important and practically the only contemporary record of early French experience in North America, the Relations were essentially "annual documents sent from the Canadian mission of the Society of Jesus to its Paris office, 1632-72, compiled by missionaries in the field, edited by their Québec superior, and printed in France..." (Source:  Canadian Encyclopedia.  Français ici.)  Collections Canada put together the Jesuit Relations and the History of New France, to help explain the context in which the texts were written.  Many of the English texts and links to French originals are found on Raymond Bucko's page The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents. 

1639- 1828 The Ursulines
Feuilles d'or et doigts de fée provides some info and pictures. (French only)
The Ursulines religious order in Quebec city taught students the arts and culture from 1639 to 1828!  But they also produced works of art, particularly sculptures and ornamentation for churches.  Some of their work can be seen as an example of Catholic and French ideologies in action.  Their work was on display in various churches across the colony.  Museum visits in Quebec City are possible.  Other small museums throughout Quebec attest to the presence of and power of religious art.  See also Religious Art Treasures

1674-1684 François de Laval, Québec’s first bishop
"The francois, first bishop of quebec exhibition bears witness to one man’s determination to lay the foundations of the Catholic church in New France, despite power struggles and disillusionment."  (Some photos of works rare objects on this site.) As a patron of education,  Laval can be seen as someone who found a way to promote Catholic ideology through the study and teaching of religious culture.  For more information on the man, visit http://home.newadvent.org/cathen/09045a.htm.   See also Canadian Encylopedia.

1680-1794 L'Atelier des Levasseur 
"It was during the last three decades of the seventeenth century that sculptors from France landed in Quebec. Among them, Jacques Leblond de Latour, one of the better trained, more productive, who will introduce apprentices in his workshop Quebec Seminary.  Upon his death in 1715, Christmas Levasseur took over, marking the beginning of sculpture in Quebec.  And soon, the whole family Levasseur, carpenters tradition, will be at the service of art and the church..."  (Google translation ofNFB summary page here.   Photos and a clip from the film are available.)

See also the Canadian Encyclopedia page on the Lavasseur Family for various images  ( French and youth editions also available) as well as their section on Religious Building in Quebec.

 

Most early French Canadians were farmers, a resilient people who lived off the land and according to the seasons.  Their society was organized by what is called the seigneurial system, an ostensibly hierarchical system, but one where seigneurs and censures alike worked to clear away trees and to plant and harvest the crops, one where a habitant could live and eat well, support a large family and even hope to own land and be a seigneur himself.

The particular situation of New France allowed for a certain degree of independence.  The habitant had to build a home, clear the land and plant crops in order to provide for his family and pay many different taxes to the seigneur.  However, unlike elsewhere in Europe, he was not obliged by military duty, had his obligations written into contracts that bound even the seigneur, and he was free to amass wealth, and could even opt to work as a courier du bois to supplement his income.

But this independence was not without hardships.  A habitant needed to be adaptable and resourceful.  Not only might the terrain and the Canadian weather provide hardships and challenges, but the habitant families also needed to provide for their own clothing, furniture and other household items like candles and soap.  The had to supplement their diets through hunting and even learned to tap trees for maple syrup. 

(Information drawn from HCO's New France Daily Life.  Site includes additional texts and pictures.  Subscriptions available for access to additional resources)

See also Canada Hall section on Farm Life for photos

Cultural Expressions associated with the independent adaptable spirit of Canadiens:

1645 - Habitant clothing and decorations.
"All but the wealthiest settlers wore clothing made in the home, often of cloth spun in the home and woven domestically or by professional local weavers. Styles tended to be conservative and to reflect rural French or, later, English styles. In the mid-19th century, as more ready-made clothing became available, fashion slowly became more accessible to the masses; however, most working-class attire continued to be fashioned at home."  (Source:  Canadian Encyclopedia on Clothing.  Interestingly, other styles, particularly for the rich, also filtered into New France.  Clothing styles, therefore, could be seen to reflect a variety of different currents of thought!!)

Note the Image of "Marguerite Bourgeois avec des jeunes filles vers 1645" at right, not simply for the scene it portrays, but that "Marguerite Bourgeois was the founder of the Congrégation de Notre-Dame de Montréal" where reading, writing and "simple handiwork" and "needlework" was taught in a religious context.  (See Canadian Biography and the Marguerite Bourgeoys Museum.  Picture source:  Marguerite Bourgeoys et son institut, par Soeur Saint-Pierre-Martyr, Montréal, Bureau Marguerite Bourgeoys, 1938, p.34. (Image in public domain)

1643-1840 Furniture in French Canada
"Most Canadian furniture of French derivation was probably made locally in small quantities as early as 1640."  [....] "These were not cabinetmakers (ébénistes) trained in the elaborate European techniques of veneer, marquetry, lapidary incrustations and ormolu mounts, but rather joiners (menuisiers) and turners (tourneurs) familiar with the qualities of specific woods and the practical techniques of solid construction handed down through generations."  (Source:  Canadian Encyclopedia)

"The style associated with Louis XIV (1643-1715) reflected a political stance, as the Louis XV (1715-1774) style mirrored a social ideal; the former was architectural, the latter was defined by the human body. The furniture of French Canada belongs not only to this tradition but also to the political and social history of North America, which gave yet another twist to the productions of this far-off outpost of France."  (Source:  Painted Furniture of French Canada 1700-1840 .)

1664 Music in New France
"The large number of immigrants that arrived in New France in the prosperous years of 1664-1672 were mostly peasants from the north of France. Their lasting influence has been in French folk music. About 90% of the 9,000 songs can be traced to this period of immigration and many still exhibit a seventeenth century character."  [...]  "The voyageurs also contributed to the musical folklore long after the demise of the French regime."  (Source:   UNB.CA site here)

  First Occupants  |  French Regime  |  British Rule  |  Contemporary Period

"Imperialism has two meanings, one describing an action and the other describing an attitude. Most commonly it is understood in relation to Empire building, as the expansion of a nation's authority by territorial conquest establishing economic and political powers in other territories or nations..."
[...]  "In its second meaning the term describes the imperialistic attitude of superiority, subordination and dominion over foreign people— a chauvinism and comportment relegating foreign people to a lesser social and or political status."  (Source:  Wikipedia on Imperialism)

"The laws and type of government were laid down in the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which formally established the colony. The Proclamation declared that Quebec was to have English laws and, in due course, an elected Legislative Assembly." (Source:  Canadian Encylopedia Youth Edition on Province of Quebec, 1763-91)   For another overview of contexts for British North America after the Royal Proclamation, and in relation to the 13 Colonies, consider reading British Empire and American Revolution from CanadaHeritage.org.

For an animated version of the process of British expansion worldwide, consider viewing all or part of this Map as History presentation:  British Empire: Trade Routes and Construction



Cultural Expressions:

1830  James Pattison Cockburn.  Painter for British Army
Cockburn is an example of a British painter, trained and hired by the British Army.  (Click here for biographical info.)   Did his military association influence his view of things?  Consider the painting LE CÔNE DE GLACE DE LA CHUTE MONTMORENCY.  (Use the large resolution version and magnifier here) Look closely and consider the way the soldiers are casually present at what appears to be a social gathering by the forest.  If anything, Cockburn is accepting that the British are here to stay, a natural and stablizing force.   McCord has a few of his other paintings.  The ArchiviaNet: Online Research Tool here lists many of his paintings for which copyright restrictions have expired. 

1769 The History of Emily Montague by Frances Brooke ( free ebook available )
Brooke wrote this "first novel published in Canada"  while living in Quebec just after the Conquest in 1769.  Though chiefly a romantic tale, in the form of an epistolary novel, some of the letters promot British virtues and the benefits of a British "education".  "The Brookes were themselves viewed as adherents of the English party, composed largely of British merchants operating from Quebec and Montreal, who in the interests of their commerce sought to have Quebec assimilated politically, socially, and economically into the British empire." (Source: Dictionary of Canadian Biography)

1778 Montreal Gazette
Though reflective other trends, certain aspects of the Montreal Gazette's politics reflected a pro-British stance after it became an English only daily in 1822.  Its writers called for the union of the Canadas and assimilation of the French culture into the British:   "De son côté, la Montreal Gazette véhiculait en 1836 des positions aussi extrémistes [as the Mercury]: «Le temps de l'indécision est passé. Les Britanniques doivent ou écraser leurs oppresseurs ou se soumettre tranquillement au joug qui leur est préparé.» Les anglophones craignaient de tomber sous la suprématie d'une «république française». Ils réclamaient l'union des deux Canadas et parlaient ouvertement d'assimilation..." (Source:  L'éveil de l'idéologie nationaliste au Bas-Canadad)

Beginning in the pre-rebellion days (1820+), Ultramontanist ideology promoted church influence in education and politics.  As such, its followers were against the liberal trends of the times.  Its presence was felt through confederation and even later during the Duplessis era of the 1950s.  "It took the QUIET REVOLUTION and the council of Vatican II to dismantle this ideological edifice."  (Source: Canadian Encyclopedia: Definition of Ultramontanism (French and student versions available)

Cultural Expressions:

1829 Basilique Notre-Dame de Montréal expansion
"Dedicated to Our Lady the Blessed Virgin – “Notre Dame” – the small original chapel was operated at first by the Jesuits. Then came the Sulpician Fathers, who in 1657 undertook construction of a larger church. [...] O’Donnell and the Fabrique opted for the Gothic Revival style then in vogue in England and the United States. The main construction work took place between 1824 and 1829."  (Source Notre-Dame Basilica website for History, Heritage and the Basilica in Pictures)   See also Wikipedia entry here.   Note also that Bishop of Montreal at the time, Jean-Jacques Lartigue, was an ultramontane.

1841-1852  Les Mélanges religieux
Ignace Bourget, bishop of Montreal, helped to promote a Rome-centric "Christianization" of his diocesans, his flock.  Aside from taking charge of the construction of St-Jacques Cathedral and promoting the training of future priests, he also established a newspaper, Les Mélanges religieux, to spread "good principles."  (Source:  Canadian Encylopedia on Ignace Bourget)

1834 Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society
"The Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society was established to promote the French-Canadian collective within Canada and to preserve the French language and culture and the Roman Catholic religion."  (Source:  Wikipedia entry)

"The definitive break with the past was the conception that free individuals could form the foundation for a stable society. This idea is generally dated from the work of John Locke (1632-1704.  See Wikipedia and Encyclopedia of Philosophy) .   Locke's  Two Treatises on Government established two fundamental liberal ideas: economic liberty, meaning the right to have and use property, and intellectual liberty, including freedom of conscience, which he expounded in A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689). 1690 was date of the Publication of Essay Concerning Human Understanding by John Locke (1632-1704)

Cultural Expressions:

1806-73 John Stuart Mill
As for Cultural expressions of Liberalism, "John Stuart Mill aptly expressed cultural liberalism in his essay "On Liberty".  (Source: Wikipedia Liberalism entry)  (See also John Stuart Mill entry here)
"The only freedom which deserves the name is that of pursuing our own good in our own way, so long as we do not attempt to deprive others of theirs, or impede their efforts to obtain it. Each is the proper guardian of his own health, whether bodily, or mental or spiritual. Mankind are greater gainers by suffering each other to live as seems good to themselves, than by compelling each to live as seems good to the rest. (Source:  John Stuart Mill quotes)

1776 Fleury Mesplet printing press
"Fleury Mesplet, who had learned the printing trade in France, brought the first press to Montréal in 1776. Initially, he produced religious works, but in 1778 began publishing the Montreal Gazette (Gazette du commerce et littéraire)."  (Source:  Canadian Encyclopedia)  Printing was to allow for a liberal voice to be heard, especially from other newspapers who voiced more radical views like those published in Le Canadien and La Minerve.


1774 Letters to the inhabitants of Canada
"The people of Quebec were invited to give themselves the provincial representation the Quebec Act did not provide for, and have this representative body send delegates to the upcoming continental Congress, to be held in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. [...] Quebec historian Marcel Trudel believes this first letter to have been "a crash course on democratic government", while Gustave Lanctôt claims that the Congress' letter "introduced [among the inhabitants] the notion of personal liberty and political equality.", calling it their first "political alphabet" and "first lesson in constitutional law". [11]"  (Source:  Wikipedia entry)

1831 Étienne Parent and Le Canadien Newspaper
"He revived Le Canadien in 1831, giving it its famous motto: "Our institutions, our language and our laws." He argued for a national existence for French Canadians, demanding "all the civil and political rights that are the prerogative of an English country."  (Source:  Canadian Encyclopedia Youth Edition)


1844 Institut canadien
"The Institut canadien was founded in Montreal in 1844 as a literary and cultural organization where young French Canadians could discuss their ideas. It quickly attracted many lively intellectuals who were interested in politics. Since their politics were rouge (liberal)...."  (Source: Canadian Encyclopedia Youth Edition)

Various dictionaries describe anticlericalism as being "opposed to the power and influence of the clergy in politics".  In Quebec, this tendency arose out of liberal and democratic influences, but also out of a new connection with the rest of the world, out of new ways of communicating that led to a more critical look on the older power structures that were dominated by the local clergy and by Rome.  The Parti rouge in Quebec who were against English domination and the lack of truly responsible government they say in  Union Act, were perceived as anticlerical in their wish to separate the church and the state.  Similarly, English Canadians like D'Arcy McGee were perceived as anticlerical while fighting for a truly Canadian federation.  Wilfred Laurier himself brought a Liberal party that many religious extremists believed to be anticlerical.  According to this article, this was mostly due to a confusion with more radical tendencies in Europe.  In effect, the Liberals only wanted the church out of politics, and eventually even the Pope of the time agreed.  (Source:  History of Canada: Liberal Administration)

Cultural Expressions:

1844 Institut canadien de Montréal
"The Institut canadien de Montréal was founded on December 17, 1844, by a group of 200 young liberal professionals in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The Institute was a public library and debating room for the literary and scientific society that would later come into conflict with the Roman Catholic Church. [...]  The Institute was the source of the ideas defended by the Parti rouge . Its motto was: Justice pour nous, justice pour tous; Raison et liberté pour nous, raison et liberté pour tous (Justice for us, justice for all; reason and liberty for us, reason and liberty for all)."  (Source and more information at Wikipedia entry here.)

Though chiefly intended as a place to discuss issues, read newspapers and exchange books, the institutes (Montreal and Quebec) were particularly interested in preserving French culture.  (Source:  L'Institut Canadien de Quebec).  That being said, the "The founding of the Canadian Institute in December 1844, marked a new [more active] stage as the liberal and anticlerical movements were on the rise."  (Source: Histoire du laicisme et de l'anticlericalimse au Quebec.)

1812-1890  Napoléon Aubin
"Napoléon Aubin (1812-1890) was a Swiss-born journalist, publisher and social activist. He came to Canada in 1835 and started Le Fantasque, a humorous and satirical political newspaper that supported the Patriote cause."  (Quoted from CollectionsCanada.ca here.)

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Imperialism ("New" British and American versions!)

British Imperialism from within Canada
Not all Canadians viewed complete independence from Britain as a viable solution for Canada during the post-Confederation era, and even well into the 20th Century.  Many felt that a British association remained necessary for Canada, allowing a "New Imperialism" to take hold from within.

"Parkin and Principal Grant, then, shared the view that Canada had a choice of destinies. It could be a full and active partner in the British Empire, sharing its burdens and, as the country developed, participating in increasing prominence in its direction. [...]  Neither thought that independence was a meaningful alternative in the longterm; the economic and cultural pull of the United States would prove too strong. Moreover, with independence Canada would cease to be part of the web of transportation and communication that gave the British Empire its coherence and strength."  (Source:  page 8 of longer article entitled " Canada's fate: Principal Grant, Sir George Parkin and George Grant" by William Christian.

"Yet for Canadians, despite a post-confederation moment of crisis - “when Canadians looked inward, fully engrossed with their internal problems,” - the imperial sentiment remained strong. [...] This is most obvious in the late 1890's, with the rise of the New Imperialism in Canada. With the coming of the Boer War and influenced by Victorian idealism, many in English Canada actively linked Christian missionary activity with the aggressive, secular economic imperialism, therefore obviating any critical response to the excesses of empire; as a result, “British supremacy” was logically seen as “the only route to lasting peace” in Southern Africa."  (Source:  Imperial Sentiment In Early 20th Century Canada)

American Expansionism and fears of Annexation
"By 1895 a small but growing number of American politicians, publicists, naval officers, and businessmen supported a modest expansionist program. This generally included the annexation of Hawaii, the acquisition of one or more base areas in the West Indies, and the construction of an isthmian canal across Central America to facilitate naval and mercantile movement between the eastern United States and the Pacific Ocean. Some also aspired to the peaceable annexation of Canada, while others wished to challenge British political and economic leadership in South America. But virtually all limited their ambitions to the Western Hemisphere, and most to areas traditionally within the sphere of American interests. While this program fell short of a full-fledged scheme of empire, it gave a specific direction to expansionist currents and reinforced the appeal of the imperialist idea."  (Source: Imperialism by David Healy)

Canadians reacted against American expansionism.  "In “The Bogey of Annexation,” Deacon argues in effect that annexation is not a viable option for Canadians, that it is but a chimera of an overenthusiastic and mistaken American imagination. He goes on to give a brief history of Canada looking at its relationship with the empire and the roots of Canadian nationalist sentiment. In Deacon's version of events, Canada's history has been one of the continuous and inevitable progress towards complete autonomy - “a logical conclusion” - and where both Americans and the British have consistently undermined Canada's ability at forging ahead on its own."  (Source:  Bill Deacon and the Annexation Debate in Canada)

Capitalism

"Capitalism is the economic system in which the means of production are owned by private persons, and operated for profit."  (Source:  Wikipedia)  In other words, in a capitalist society someone "owns" factories or other forms of commerce, they buy materials to add value somehow, by manufacturing other goods for example, and then they sells those goods for more than they paid for them, making a profit.

Is Capitalism an "ideology" or a Current of Thought?   Some would argue yes, and others would argue no.   What is clear is that proponents of a Capitalist economic system believe in " free market with minimal state intervention, [where] government in the economy as solely defending the rights of the participants against violence, theft, fraud, and damages such as pollution, [though some]  "defend a mostly free market within the nation, but proposes state intervention to protect domestic commerce and industries against foreign competition.  (Quote paraphrased from parts of Kids.net entry here) 

The proponent of Capitalism also often believes that a free economic system allows the best people to succeed, and that the chance for wealth and control encourages all of us to strive to be better.   It is that emphasis on "individual freedom" which often defines capitalist Currents of Thought.

Cultural Expressions:

1850-1930 The Golden Square Mile 
"The Golden Square Mile, bounded by Atwater Avenue to the west, Bleury Street to the east, De la Gauchetière Street to the south and the Mount Royal to the north, was the residential neighbourhood of the Canadian upper class between 1850 and 1930. | In those years, an estimated 70% of the country's wealth lay in the hands of local residents, the majority of whom were of Scottish descent."  (Source:  GoldenSquareMile.com History)

Socialism

A socialist believes that most industry and labor should be controlled by "the state" (that is, the government).  The state represents, or is a reflection of, the will of the people, so a socialist obviously believes in giving power to the people, and that the people are those who should be making choices, especially large-scale  economic choices that affect the population as a whole.  Socialists oppose capitalism and think the economy should be run collectively. 

Obviously, socialists are in part taking a moral position, or in other words, they believe the Capitalist factory owner's profiting from work done by hired workers is immoral.  However, socialists also believe a collectively run economy can be more effective in other ways:  for example, in terms of how industry might be prevented from harming the environment, or public health, through pollution.  Some also believe it could ultimately be more efficient.

In any case, a Socialist tends to promote cooperation and collective endeavors.  People are "free,"  yes, but in the sense that they are free to work together for the common good.  A socialist is also adamant that the common people have a voice, that they be included somehow in the power structure (through government representation, or through unions and collective action), and simply that they are heard and understood.

Cultural Expressions:

1968-2000 Michel Tremblay
Consider many clips on the writer at CBC Archives  L'enfant Terrible of Canadian Theatre.  He was in many ways reacting against capitalism and dominance of English speakers.  His plays spoke for the people, in the voice of the people.


 

Cooperatism

"Co-operatives are businesses owned and managed by the people they serve. [...] 

All co-operatives are owned and controlled democratically by their members, and their savings or "profits" are returned to the members in their own communities and not sent away to outside investors."  (Source and more info:  Canadian Youth Encyclopedia)

"Quebec co-op principles [...]  One principle is mutual aid (the very basis and raison d'etre of the movement). Also of great importance is the notion of one member-one vote which is in opposition to the capitalist concept of power based on the number of shares held. Then there are the concepts of local control, federalism and self-management (the latter in the case of worker co-ops). The different co-ops and caisses are proud of their autonomy and wish to keep it. While certain things might be better accomplished in a centralised fashion, unity is brought about through the federalist principle and not a top-down hierarchy as in the case of a typical business corporation."  (Source: Anarchist take on Cooperative Movement in Quebec by Larry Gambone

 

Agriculturism

" As defined by Brunet, agriculturalism incorporated several elements. In its simplest form, it could be defined as an unbounded love for agriculture. However, Brunet was quick to point out that it was mainly a system of thought that incorporated a philosophy of life that idealised the past, condemned the present, and showed distrust for the modern social order. As such, it was an anti-modern ideology"  (Source and more info:  Agriculturalism by Claude Bélanger )

Nationalism(s)

"Nationalism is the doctrine or practice of promoting the collective interests of the national community or STATE above those of individuals, regions, special interests or other nations. In the arts, nationalism is the expression of, or the appeal for, distinctive national styles."  (Source:  Canadian Encyclopedia)

A Canadian Nationalism
"National sentiment developed slowly after Confederation, reflecting the strengths of provincialism and, in English-speaking Canada, the overriding sense of membership in the British Empire. There were glimmerings of nationalism in the CANADA FIRST movement of the 1870s and among writers of the 1890s. By 1911 Canada's nationalist dilemmas were becoming evident when the Laurier government was defeated over its modestly independent naval policy and a scheme of reciprocity with the United States, through a combination of anti- and pro-imperialist and anti-American opponents." [..] " The country's participation in WWI did most to create a sense of distinct nationhood." (Source:  Canadian Encyclopedia)

Nationalism Reborn, and Pop Art Explored: the 1960s
Non-representational painters became the new norm in Canadian art, particularly in central Canada. By the mid 1960s, however, different trends, influenced by Pop Art and film, came to dominate Canadian art. During the 1960s, strong nationalist sentiments (often anti-American) became evident, in part due to opposition to the Vietnam War, and in part due to what some perceived to be American economic and political imperialism.

French Canadian Nationalism
"For over a century, French Canadian nationalism was generally linked to conservative causes and to the perpetuation of a traditional society. For the clerical and professional elite, fidelity to language, culture and religion implied respect for the acceptance of the established social order in which the Roman CATHOLIC Church dominated, agriculture was lauded as society's material and moral foundation, parish and family were the basic social institutions, commercial and industrial pursuits were disdained, and foreign influences were shunned."
[...]
"Following WWII, rapid changes in French Canadian society, characterized by increasing diversity, led to new expressions of nationalism (see QUIET REVOLUTION). Economic and political themes became central and, particularly after 1960".  (Source:  French Canadian Nationalism at Canadian Encyclopedia  Note that Youth and French editions are available)



Cultural Expressions:

1910 [Canadian] Nationalism and the Group of Seven
"The Group of Seven argued strongly against pastoralism, claiming it was not a truly Canadian artistic style because it derived from European painting styles. [...] For them, the rugged nature of the Canadian landscape required a bolder, more vigorous painting style and a heightened use of colour."   (Source:  T he Group of Seven From the Mount Allison University Canadian Studies pages)

National Gallery's Cybermuse - Canadian paintings by the Group of Seven
English Lesson plan   (Français)
"In the 1910s, Tom Thomson, an artist and avid outdoorsman, revolutionized the way we view the Canadian landscape."

National Gallery's Cybermuse - Canadian Painting in the Thirties
English Lesson Plan    (Français)
English Subsite and Gallery    (Français)
"The thirties in Canada were marked by the economic collapse of the Great Depression and the rise of new political movements such as fascism and socialism. [...] New methods and attitudes brought a spirit of innovation and interest in modern art and formal expression."
Includes Chronology of important events, and several key paintings that reflect social concerns such as Petroushka  by Paraskeva Clark and Longshoremen  by Miller Brittain.  Also includes section on Group of Seven and Canada's "National School", and emphasis on Regionalist Manifestations in Quebec.

 

 

Secularism  (anti-Catholic)

Secularism demands "a focus upon the material and upon this world rather than the immaterial, the spiritual, or any other world."  (Source: Defining Secularism).  In Quebec this current of thought really took off after the second world war, when a break with the church control on the lives of Quebecois began to take forms that were to last to today.  "In the early 1960s, Quebec's church-based education system became a focal point in a series of rapid, sweeping government reforms. The changes would transform Quebec and mark the peak of the Quiet Revolution."  (Source:  Canada's a People's History on Quiet Revolution)

Cultural Expressions:

1948 "Refus global"
[Translation of RECIT original text]
In 1948, Maurice Duplessis was premier of Quebec for a third term. More than tired of values advocated by the solidly anchored conservatives  in the province, Borduas launched his manifesto Refus global. It was a collage of texts and illustrations written by a group of artists and intellectuals Quebec, who, like Borduas, demanded the end of this obscurantist a period and the advent of an era of freedom and openness to the world.

The values of the automatists are clearly defined in the manifesto: spontaneity, intuition, the unconscious.  But the manifesto goes much further: it denounces the domination of the Quebec people by the elite and Catholic political establishment , it opposed the state of fear and anguish that the people of Quebec had maintained since the Conquest; it claimed genuine freedom for all. 

This rejection of traditional values was very badly received by the elite of the time and the press  condemned and censored the manifesto. 

Excerpts from Refusal global in English

1950 Cité libre
"The bourgeois intellectuals who formed its editorial board, including Gérard Pelletier and Pierre Elliott Trudeau, were searching for new values and a new identity. Their orientation was humanistic and progressive, secular and anticlerical, and also anti-nationalistic."  (Source: Quebec Since 1900)

Wikipedia begins an attempt to define fascism with this phrase:  "Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist political ideology and mass movement that is concerned with notions of cultural decline or decadence."  What can be gained from this definition is not only the notion of state control (of major industry for example) and a fervent patriotism, but also the fascists' concern for culture.  Fasicts regimes claimed a superiority of one race or culture over another, and promoted that culture while at the same time denigrating and fearing others, often to the point of persecuting those other cultures.

Typically we associate fascism with Hitler's Germany and Mussolini's Italy.  We think of the genocide directed at Jews and others during the 1940s.  But in Quebec political parties such as the Parti national social chrétien merged with other fascist groups across Canada.  Such groups "commonly fought with immigrants, Canadian minorities and leftist groups."  The Quebec version was founded by  Adrian Arcand.  "This party advocated anti-communism and French Canadian nationalism and it also continued Arcand's campaign against Canadian Jews, demanding that they be resettled near Hudson Bay." (Source: Canadian Encylopedia on Arcand)

Another perspective on fascism is the way it draws on historical events to stir up patriotism and a nationalist sentiment.  "Despite its appearances of modernity, fascism looks towards the past for inspiration, and builds on the values of a mythical past to unite different classes under a shared banner of 'nationality and race' (47)."   (Source:  Media Studies article on Fascism and the Cult of Nation.  Includes examples of Nazi art.)

1930-1948 Anti-fascist response by Jewish Painters of Montreal
Marked by economic crisis and the rise of Fascism, this period provided fertile ground for the expression of leftist ideals. Many Jewish artists shared a progressist vision seeking greater social justice. Some of their works—portraits of the unemployed, the ill and the poor—reflect their empathy for the underprivileged."  (Source:  Jewish Painters of Montreal Witnesses of Their Time, 1930-1948.   Includes small representive image of work The City,  by Harry Mayerovitch.)

Feminism

"Feminism is a political theory and practice articulated by women who after analyzing the reality in which they live are made aware of the discrimination they suffer for the sole reason that they are women. They decide to organize themselves to stop the discrimination, to change society. Based on that reality, feminism is spoken as a political philosophy, at the same time, as a social movement.” (Quote from Nuria Valera in the article " Canada: Feminism: A Concept to be Celebrated no Feared)

"Although achieving female suffrage and winning the 'Persons' Case were highlights of the period, other issues and causes were important to women in Canada during the first half of the 20th century. It is important to also examine the role of Prohibition and the Temperance movement, the agitation for equal pay for equal work, the laws surrounding women’s property rights, as well as other major causes in the development of the young Dominion of Canada."  (Source Famous 5 History section.   The Famous 5 website itself (click here) is maintained by the Alberta Heritage Community foundation.   It contains many biographies, timelines, and activity suggestions surrounding the important contributions of Nellie McClung, Louise McKinney, Henrietta Muir Edwards, Emily Murphy, and Irene Parlby, some of which may be applicable even in a Quebec-based program)

Claude Bélanger has gathered together various seminal articles published on the issue of Feminism in Quebec.  (French only)


1965 Nicole Brossard and Barre du jour
"Nicole Brossard, writer, publisher (b at Montréal 27 Nov 1943). Brossard is a leading exponent of so-called formalist poetry in Québec and a major theoretician and promoter of literary and cultural feminism. In 1965 she founded LA BARRE DU JOUR, a literary magazine which rebelled against nationalist-inspired poetry."  (Source and more info:  Canadian Encyclopedia)

1975 Jovette Marchessault first novel
Jovette Marchessault, playwright, novelist, painter and sculptor ( b at Montréal 1938). Of mixed French and Amerindian ancestry, [...] Her first novel, Comme une enfant de la terre (1975), was awarded the Prix France-Québec in 1976, and was followed by 2 others that attracted widespread attention for their radical feminism. [..] Tthe Saga - like all of Marchessault's dramas to date - scorns traditional linear plot ..  [Source for full article at Canadian Encyclopedia)  More extensive biography at glbtq.com here.

Americanism

"An attitude or conviction which gives special importance to the nation or culture of the United States" (Source: Wikipedia entry).  For our purposes, this definition serves to highlight the way American culture was valued and often immitated in Canada and even in Quebec.  During the 1950s music, television and music poured into Canada using new forms of mass media.  America had just one the war, were our protectors against the Russian menace, and they represented economic  success.

A different angle on Americanism can be found when associated with Fordism.  Marxists like Gramsci say Americanism as 'mechanicist', crude, burtal -- 'pure action' in other words -- and it is contrasted with tradition, etc."  (Source:  Gramsci: Americanism and Fordism)   Basically, Fordism promoted industrialization according to methods used by Henry Ford, which implies assembly lines and mass production.  But "In a broader sense, Fordism refers to the classical 20th century consumer society:  high productivity allows for high wages, mass production allows for mass consumption. (e.g. during the "economic miracle" of post-war West-Germany)"  (Source:  Wikipedia Entry.) 

Americanism then, is not only the influx of American culture, but it also implies the promotion of American ideals,  such as the self-made man, such as the American dream that anyone can succeed.

Neoliberalism

Neoliberalists are generally those who believe in less state control of the economy.   They believe that deregulating the economy, allowing for free-trade and a free market allows for better economic growth and greater benefits in the long run for individuals.   Many neoliberalists even opposed unions.

In the United States neoliberalist policies were associated with Ronald Reagan, who made many decisions that "liberalized" the American economy, cutting taxes, firing union members, but hoping for a trickle down effect of wealth from the rich to the poor, he ended up "presided over the greatest rise in economic inequality in twentieth century American history [9]"  (Source:  Wikipedia Entry on Neoliberalism)  In Canada we think of Conservatives like Brian Mulroney, Mike Harris, Ralph Klein, and Gordon Campbell.  Mulroney's Free Trade agreement with the United States is a prime example of neoliberalist philosophies in action.

Aboriginalism

Aboriginalism in Quebec and Canada took hold in the 20th century as many natives began to claim land rights and treaty rights, and as Native communities sought to empower themselves through self-government and other means such as lobby groups and Native associations. 

"When Aboriginal peoples talk of possessing their ancestral or traditional lands, they are talking not only of a legal concept, although international and domestic laws do recognize Aboriginal land rights, but of a world view and way of life as well. This is why Aboriginal peoples desire to maintain and develop their long-standing relationship to the land and its resources. Access to an adequate land and resource base is key to Aboriginal peoples being able to realize self-determination and self-sufficient economies.
[...]
Aboriginal rights are collective rights which flow from the fact that Aboriginal peoples occupied their lands prior to the arrival of settlers."  (Source:  Aboriginal Rights Coalition)

Not everyone agrees Aboriginalism had positive effects for Native peoples.  Taiaiake Alfred, a Mohawk scholar,  believes it was merely.  He thinks that Aboriginalism is a modern false consciousness fixated on fear of the white man." (Source:  Google Books)   He thinks that "substantive restitution rather than mere recognition of 'Aboriginal rights,' for autonomy rather than dependent forms of 'self-government,' and for peaceful coexistence between and among indigenous and non-indigenous peoples."  (Richard Day, Queen's University)

Some useful links:
In my lifetime.  Contemporary Aboriginal Art
http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/mes-jours/inmylifetime10e.html
Holman: Forty Years of Graphic Art
http://www.virtualmuseum.ca/Exhibitions/Holman/english/index.php3
Aboriginal Art in the Collection of Indigenous Art
http://www.gallery.ca/english/110.htm
Alanis Obomsawin
http://www.nfb.ca/portraits/alanis_obomsawin/

Important Moments in Canadian Art History